Music History What University

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Introduction

Music has been an integral part of human culture since the dawn of civilization. It transcends language barriers and connects people on an emotional level. Throughout history, music has evolved, adapted, and been shaped by various cultures and societies. It spans across genres, from classical masterpieces to chart-topping hits, and captures the essence of different eras, reflecting the social, political, and cultural influences of each time period.

In this article, we will delve into the rich tapestry of music history, exploring the early origins of music, its development in ancient civilizations, and the emergence of various musical styles and movements. From the medieval and Renaissance periods to the Baroque and Classical eras, we will uncover the significant milestones and influential figures that shaped the course of music as we know it today.

We will also explore the impact of industrialization on music and how it gave rise to new musical forms and genres. Furthermore, we will examine the transformative effects of the 20th century, which witnessed the birth of modern and contemporary movements, as well as the fusion and integration of different musical traditions.

No discussion of music history would be complete without acknowledging the profound influence of jazz and blues on popular music. These powerful genres served as a vehicle for cultural expression and paved the way for the development of rock and roll, hip hop, and other modern music styles.

Lastly, we will explore the transformative impact of technology and the digital age on music. From the invention of recording devices to the rise of streaming platforms, technology has revolutionized the way we produce, consume, and share music, making it more accessible to global audiences.

Join us on this journey through music history as we uncover the stories and legacies of those who have shaped the musical landscape and continue to inspire generations to come.

Early Origins of Music

Music has been an integral part of human existence for thousands of years, with evidence of its presence in ancient civilizations dating back to prehistoric times. The earliest forms of music were likely created through simple rhythmic patterns and vocalizations. Archaeological discoveries of bone flutes and primitive musical instruments suggest that music played a significant role in the rituals and ceremonies of early human societies.

One of the earliest known examples of musical instruments is the Neanderthal flute, a discovery made in Slovenia in the early 1990s. Dating back to approximately 43,000 years ago, this flute is made from a bear bone and reveals the musical capabilities of our ancient ancestors.

As human civilization progressed, so did the complexity of music. In ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, music was closely intertwined with religious and cultural practices. Sumerian and Babylonian cultures developed intricate systems of music notation, while the Egyptians believed that music had the power to connect the mortal and divine realms.

The ancient Greeks also left a significant mark on the history of music. They believed that music had the ability to evoke emotions and influence the psyche. Pythagoras, the renowned philosopher, explored the mathematical principles behind harmonic relationships and laid the foundation for music theory as we know it today.

Moving eastwards, the Indian subcontinent developed rich musical traditions that are still practiced today. The ancient Indian treatise, the Natya Shastra, written by the sage Bharata Muni, outlines the principles of Indian classical music and the intricate system of ragas and talas.

In China, music played a vital role in the harmonization of society. Instruments such as the guqin and pipa were developed, and music was seen as a way to maintain balance and order between the heavens and the earth.

Across cultures and continents, music served various purposes, including ceremonial, educational, and entertainment functions. It was a medium for storytelling, a means of expressing emotions, and a tool for bringing communities together.

Although the early origins of music are shrouded in mystery, it is clear that music has always played a significant role in the fabric of human society. It acts as a universal language that transcends cultural boundaries and has the power to communicate and evoke emotions in ways that words alone cannot.

Development of Music in Ancient Civilizations

Ancient civilizations around the world cultivated unique musical traditions, each with its own distinct styles and influences. From Mesopotamia to Egypt, from Greece to China, music played a central role in the cultural and social fabric of these societies.

In Mesopotamia, music was deeply intertwined with religious practices and rituals. The Sumerians developed a complex system of music notation to preserve and pass down their musical traditions. They used a variety of instruments, including lyres, harps, and drums, to create melodic and rhythmic compositions. This early form of musical notation allowed for the preservation and dissemination of music across generations.

Similarly, in ancient Egypt, music held deep religious significance. It was believed to have the ability to communicate with the gods and invoke specific deities. The Egyptians used a wide range of instruments, such as harps, lutes, and percussion instruments, and incorporated singing and chanting into their musical performances.

The ancient Greeks made significant contributions to the development of music theory and notation. The philosopher Pythagoras explored the mathematical principles governing harmony and introduced the concept of the octave. Additionally, the Greeks developed various musical modes and scales, laying the groundwork for Western music theory.

In China, music was seen as a way to maintain balance and harmony in society. The development of musical scales, known as gongche notation, allowed for the preservation and dissemination of music across different regions. The Chinese believed that music had the power to communicate with the divine and played a crucial role in imperial ceremonies and rituals.

In India, the ancient treatise Natya Shastra outlined the principles of Indian classical music. The use of ragas (melodic frameworks) and talas (rhythmic patterns) became central to the performance of Indian music. These musical traditions were deeply rooted in spiritual and philosophical concepts, aiming to evoke specific emotions and create a profound connection between the performer and the audience.

Across these ancient civilizations, music was not only a form of entertainment but also a means of expression, communication, and spiritual connection. It served as a powerful tool for storytelling, elevating religious rituals, and bringing communities together. The development of musical notation and theories laid the foundation for future musical innovation and ensured the preservation of cultural traditions for generations to come.

Medieval and Renaissance Musical Influences

The medieval and Renaissance periods mark a significant transition in the history of music. During the Middle Ages, music became closely connected to the Christian church, with sacred chants and polyphonic compositions dominating the musical landscape.

Gregorian chant, named after Pope Gregory I, was the dominant form of sacred music during the medieval period. These monophonic chants were characterized by their serene and meditative quality. The use of modal scales and melismatic ornamentation created a sense of reverence and spirituality.

As the Middle Ages progressed, polyphonic music gained prominence. This intricate style of music featured multiple independent vocal lines, which came together to create harmonies. Composers such as Guillaume de Machaut and Hildegard von Bingen pushed the boundaries of musical expression, experimenting with complex melodic lines and intricate polyphonic textures.

The Renaissance period saw a flourishing of artistic and intellectual pursuits, and music was no exception. Humanist ideals and the rediscovery of ancient Greek and Roman texts sparked a renewed interest in the arts, including music.

One of the defining characteristics of Renaissance music was the use of imitative polyphony. Composers such as Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina and Josquin des Prez carefully crafted their compositions, balancing the interplay of voices and creating intricate harmonies. The motet, a polyphonic vocal composition, became particularly popular during this time.

The development of music printing in the 15th century revolutionized the dissemination of music. With the invention of the printing press, musical compositions could be reproduced more rapidly and accurately, allowing for wider accessibility and transmission of musical ideas.

Instrumental music also began to gain recognition during the Renaissance. Composers such as John Dowland and William Byrd composed intricate pieces for instruments such as the lute and the virginal. The rise of courtly patronage contributed to the flourishing of instrumental music, as aristocrats and nobles sought entertainment in their courts.

Overall, the medieval and Renaissance periods were marked by a rich diversity of musical expression. From the serene chants of the Middle Ages to the complex polyphony and instrumental compositions of the Renaissance, these eras laid the foundation for the development of Western classical music. The innovations and musical achievements of this time continue to inspire and influence musicians and composers to this day.

Baroque Era: A Shift in Musical Style

The Baroque era, which spanned from the late 16th to the early 18th century, witnessed a significant shift in musical style and expression. This period is characterized by its ornate and elaborate compositions, marked by intricate melodies, rich harmonies, and highly expressive performances.

One of the key developments during the Baroque era was the rise of the basso continuo, a continuous bass line that provided a harmonic foundation for the music. Composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach and Antonio Vivaldi utilized the basso continuo to create complex and intricate compositions.

During the Baroque era, the concept of tonality and modulation became more prevalent. Composers explored different key relationships, creating a sense of tension and resolution within their musical compositions. This exploration of tonality laid the groundwork for the harmonic principles that would later shape Western music.

Baroque music was characterized by its highly emotive and dramatic qualities. Composers embraced the concept of affections, aiming to elicit specific emotions from the listener. Pieces were often composed as a series of contrasting sections, each conveying a different emotional state.

The development of instrumental music also flourished during the Baroque era. Prominent composers, such as Antonio Vivaldi with his Four Seasons and Johann Sebastian Bach with his Brandenburg Concertos, composed masterful works for various instruments and ensembles. The concerto, with its virtuosic solo passages set against the backdrop of an orchestral accompaniment, became a hallmark of Baroque instrumental music.

In addition to instrumental music, vocal music continued to flourish during the Baroque era. Opera, a musical form that combined singing, acting, and stagecraft, gained popularity and became a significant expression of artistic creativity. Composers such as Claudio Monteverdi and George Frideric Handel contributed greatly to the development and evolution of opera.

The shift in musical style during the Baroque era was also reflected in the emergence of new forms and structures. The fugue, a highly contrapuntal composition, became a staple of Baroque music. The use of intricate fugue subjects and the art of thematic development showcased the technical prowess of composers during this period.

Overall, the Baroque era marked a significant shift in musical style, characterized by its ornate compositions, exploration of tonality, and highly expressive performances. The innovations and achievements of Baroque composers continue to be celebrated and admired, with their works being performed and appreciated by audiences around the world.

Classical Period and the Rise of Orchestral Music

The Classical period, which spanned roughly from the mid-18th to the early 19th century, marked a significant shift in musical style from the ornate and complex compositions of the Baroque era. This period was characterized by its emphasis on clarity, balance, and symmetry, as well as a renewed focus on formal structures and the rise of orchestral music.

One of the defining features of the Classical period was the rise of the symphony orchestra. Composers such as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven expanded the size and scope of the orchestra, introducing new instruments and creating a richer and more varied orchestral sound.

The symphony, a multi-movement orchestral composition, became one of the most significant musical forms of the time. Composers explored the possibilities of the symphony, experimenting with different structures, tonalities, and themes. The symphonies of Mozart and Haydn, in particular, are considered masterpieces of the Classical period.

Another important development during the Classical period was the emergence of the sonata form. This formal structure, consisting of three main sections – exposition, development, and recapitulation – provided a framework for composers to craft their musical ideas within a balanced and cohesive structure. Beethoven, in particular, pushed the boundaries of the sonata form, infusing it with greater emotional intensity and innovative harmonies.

Chamber music also flourished during the Classical period. Composers wrote numerous string quartets, piano trios, and other small ensemble compositions, which were intended for intimate performances in private settings. These chamber music works allowed composers to explore more nuanced and intimate expressions of musical ideas.

Vocal music also played a prominent role during the Classical period, with the emergence of the opera buffa (comic opera) and the opera seria (serious opera). Composers such as Mozart and Haydn wrote captivating operas that showcased their mastery of melody, characterization, and storytelling. Arias and ensembles became highlights of these opera compositions.

The Classical period also saw the rise of the concerto, a form that showcased the virtuosity of a soloist accompanied by an orchestra. Composers like Mozart and Beethoven composed remarkable concertos for piano, violin, and other instruments, balancing the technical demands on the soloist with expressive melodies and orchestral accompaniment.

The Classical period represented a departure from the ornate and contrapuntal style of the Baroque era. It brought about a focus on clarity, balance, and formal structures, as well as the rise of orchestral music as a central element of musical expression. The symphony, sonata form, and the development of chamber music and opera all contributed to the rich and diverse musical landscape of the Classical period.

Romantic Period: Heightened Emotional Expression in Music

The Romantic period, which spanned roughly from the late 18th to the early 20th century, was a time of heightened emotional expression in music. Composers of this era sought to evoke deep emotions and stir the passions of their listeners through their compositions, breaking away from the more structured and restrained music of the Classical period.

During the Romantic period, composers turned to personal expression and subjective experiences as sources of inspiration. They sought to capture and convey a wide range of emotions, from profound love and yearning to intense sadness and even despair. Composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Frédéric Chopin, and Pyotr Tchaikovsky are iconic figures of this era, known for their emotionally charged and deeply expressive compositions.

One of the hallmarks of the Romantic period was the expanded size and scope of the orchestra. Composers utilized larger ensembles and introduced new instruments to create a richer and more dramatic sound. This enabled them to convey a wider range of emotions and expressiveness in their compositions. Notable examples include the orchestral works of Richard Wagner and Gustav Mahler, known for their grandeur and sweeping emotional landscapes.

The symphony continued to be an important genre during the Romantic period, with composers like Brahms and Mahler crafting symphonies that reflected their individual artistic visions. These symphonies often encompassed a wide range of emotions, from tender melodies to powerful climaxes, allowing the orchestra to be a vehicle for the expression of intense feelings.

Another significant development of the Romantic period was the rise of programmatic music. Composers, inspired by literature, mythology, or their own personal experiences, created musical works that told a story or depicted specific scenes and events. Hector Berlioz’s “Symphonie fantastique” and Franz Liszt’s “Les Préludes” are notable examples of programmatic compositions that aimed to evoke vivid emotional experiences in the listener.

The piano also played a central role in the Romantic period, with composers like Chopin and Franz Schubert composing exquisite piano works that showcased the instrument’s expressive capabilities. The piano became a solo instrument of choice for composers to pour their deepest emotions and reflections into their compositions.

Vocal music also flourished during the Romantic period, with the emergence of art songs, or lieder, in which the voice and piano intertwine to convey powerful emotional messages. Composers such as Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann composed lieder that captured the essence of human experiences, from the joys of love to the sorrows of lost dreams.

The Romantic period was a time of intense emotional expression in music, with composers breaking free from the confines of traditional structures to explore the depths of human emotions. Their compositions continue to resonate with audiences today, evoking profound emotional responses and connecting us to the powerful and universal experiences of the human condition.

Impacts of Industrialization on Music

The advent of industrialization during the 19th century brought about profound changes in nearly every aspect of society, and music was no exception. The impact of industrialization on music was multifaceted, with both positive and negative effects on the creation, dissemination, and consumption of music.

One of the significant impacts of industrialization was the development and mass production of musical instruments. Advances in manufacturing techniques and the growth of factories led to the creation of more affordable and accessible instruments, allowing a wider population to engage with music. This, in turn, fostered the rise of amateur musicians and music-making in private homes.

Furthermore, industrialization revolutionized the methods of music production and distribution. The invention of the phonograph by Thomas Edison and subsequent advancements in recording technology allowed for the preservation and reproduction of musical performances. This led to the commercialization of music and the emergence of the recording industry, as well as the possibility for musicians to reach broader audiences beyond live performances.

However, the commodification and commercialization of music during the industrial era also had its drawbacks. The focus on profit and market demand sometimes overshadowed artistic integrity and diversity. Popular music became influenced by market trends, leading to the standardization of musical styles and the marginalization of less commercially viable genres.

Additionally, the rise of industrialization resulted in significant changes in the traditional patronage system for musicians. In the past, composers and performers relied heavily on the support of wealthy patrons or noble courts. However, as industrialization took hold, the patronage system waned, and musicians increasingly had to depend on public concerts and ticket sales for income.

Industrialization also influenced the development of music education. With the growth of cities and the establishment of educational institutions, access to music education became more widespread. Schools, conservatories, and music academies offered structured training and opportunities for aspiring musicians, leading to the professionalization and standardization of musical education.

The impact of industrialization on music was not limited to the creation and dissemination of music. It also transformed the listening habits and music consumption patterns of individuals. With the invention of the radio and later the advent of streaming platforms, music became more accessible to the masses. People could listen to a wide range of music from the comfort of their own homes or on-the-go, broadening their exposure to different genres and styles.

Overall, the impact of industrialization on music was far-reaching. It revolutionized the manufacturing and distribution of musical instruments, transformed the way music was recorded and consumed, and influenced the organization and accessibility of music education. While industrialization brought tremendous advancements and opportunities, it also presented challenges, such as the commercialization of music and the hierarchization of musical genres. Nevertheless, the legacy of industrialization continues to shape the music industry and our musical experiences in the modern era.

20th Century: Modern and Contemporary Musical Movements

The 20th century was a period of immense innovation and experimentation in music, characterized by the emergence of modern and contemporary musical movements. This era witnessed a departure from traditional tonality and embraced new forms, techniques, and philosophies that challenged conventional musical norms.

One of the defining movements of the 20th century was the advent of impressionism in music. Spearheaded by composers such as Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, impressionism sought to evoke sensory and emotional experiences through the use of atmospheric harmonies, subtle textures, and vivid musical imagery. Impressionism broke away from rigid forms and focused on capturing fleeting moments and intensely visual musical landscapes.

Following impressionism, the early 20th century saw the rise of various avant-garde movements, including expressionism and atonality. Composers like Arnold Schoenberg and Alban Berg explored dissonance, breaking free from traditional tonality, and pushing the boundaries of musical expression. Atonal music challenged listeners, focusing on intense emotional expression and providing a stark contrast to the harmonies of previous eras.

The development of electronic music was another major breakthrough of the 20th century. Technological advancements enabled composers like Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre Schaeffer to manipulate and create sounds using electronic equipment. This gave rise to new musical possibilities, as composers embraced the use of synthesizers, tape manipulation, and computer-generated sounds to create avant-garde and experimental compositions.

The emergence of minimalism in the later half of the 20th century brought about a shift towards simplicity and repetition. Composers like Steve Reich and Philip Glass created compositions with repetitive melodic and rhythmic patterns, exploring the subtle changes that occurred over time. Minimalism rejected complex orchestrations and intricate harmonies, focusing instead on the meditative and hypnotic qualities of repetitive musical elements.

Furthermore, the incorporation of world music and fusion genres became prevalent in the 20th century. Artists like Ravi Shankar and Dizzy Gillespie explored the integration of different cultural musical traditions, creating rich and eclectic compositions that transcended borders and genres. This cross-pollination of musical styles opened up new avenues for creativity and expanded the sonic palette of contemporary music.

The advent of popular music genres also had a significant impact on the 20th century musical landscape. From the birth of jazz in the early 1900s to the explosion of rock and roll in the 1950s and the subsequent rise of genres like hip hop, pop, and electronic dance music, popular music shaped and reflected the social and cultural changes of the time. Popularity and mass appeal became key factors in shaping the direction of musical trends.

As we move further into the 21st century, the legacy of the 20th century’s modern and contemporary musical movements continues to influence and inspire new generations of composers and musicians. The experimentation, exploration, and boundary-pushing spirit of this era have paved the way for an ever-evolving and diverse musical landscape.

Influence of Jazz and Blues on Popular Music

Jazz and blues are two quintessential American musical genres that have had a profound influence on the development of popular music. Emerging from African-American communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, these genres brought new rhythms, melodies, and expressive styles to the forefront of the music scene.

Jazz, with its improvisational nature and syncopated rhythms, introduced a level of spontaneity and creativity that challenged conventional musical norms. Pioneers of jazz, such as Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, and Charlie Parker, pushed the boundaries of musical expression, exploring new harmonies and melodic concepts. The emphasis on individual expression and collaborative improvisation in jazz greatly influenced subsequent genres, such as bebop, cool jazz, and fusion.

Blues, born out of the African-American experience and rooted in the expression of personal hardships and emotions, brought a raw and emotional style to popular music. Blues artists, including B.B. King, Muddy Waters, and Robert Johnson, used distinctive vocal techniques and soulful guitar playing to convey deep feelings of joy, sorrow, and resilience. The impact of the blues on popular music can be seen in various genres, including rock and roll, rhythm and blues, and soul.

One of the significant legacies of jazz and blues is their influence on the evolution of rock and roll. Rock and roll artists like Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry, and Little Richard drew heavily from the rhythmic vitality and energetic performances of jazz and blues. They incorporated elements such as guitar solos, syncopation, and call-and-response patterns, creating a new and explosive sound that resonated with audiences worldwide.

The infusion of jazz and blues into popular music also led to the development of genres like rhythm and blues (R&B) and soul. R&B, with its soulful vocals, grooving rhythms, and blues-inspired melodies, carved out its own place in the music industry. Artists like Ray Charles, Aretha Franklin, and Stevie Wonder brought the expressive qualities of jazz and blues into their R&B compositions, giving birth to a new generation of soulful music.

Furthermore, the influence of jazz and blues extended to the realm of popular music composition and songwriting. The incorporation of jazz harmonies and improvisational elements can be heard in the works of renowned songwriters such as George Gershwin, Cole Porter, and Harold Arlen. The sophistication and rhythmic complexity of jazz provided a rich palette for these composers to explore and bring into the world of popular music.

The impact of jazz and blues on popular music can still be felt today. Their influence can be heard in a wide range of contemporary genres, including pop, hip hop, and even electronic music. Many artists continue to draw inspiration from the expressive techniques, melodic structures, and rhythmic innovations that jazz and blues pioneered.

Ultimately, jazz and blues not only shaped the course of popular music but also served as catalysts for social change, bridging diverse communities, and giving voice to the marginalized. Their enduring legacy continues to inspire musicians and listeners alike, firmly establishing their place in the rich tapestry of popular music history.

Music in the Digital Age

The digital age has had a profound impact on the music industry, revolutionizing the way music is created, distributed, and consumed. Advances in technology and the rise of the internet have transformed the landscape of the music industry, providing both opportunities and challenges for artists, listeners, and the industry as a whole.

The emergence of digital audio recording and editing software has made it easier and more affordable for musicians to create professional-quality recordings. Artists can now produce music in the comfort of their own homes, bypassing the need for costly studio time. This has empowered independent musicians, allowing them to take control of their creative process and release music on their terms.

The advent of streaming platforms has radically changed the way people access and listen to music. Services like Spotify, Apple Music, and YouTube Music have given listeners the ability to stream an extensive library of songs on-demand, making music more accessible than ever before. This shift in consumption patterns has also influenced the ways artists earn revenue, with streaming becoming a dominant source of income for many musicians.

Social media platforms have provided artists with new avenues to connect with fans and promote their music. Platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and TikTok have become powerful tools for building a dedicated fan base and reaching a wider audience. Artists can showcase their personalities, share behind-the-scenes content, and engage directly with their fans, creating a more intimate and interactive relationship.

However, the digital age has also presented challenges for the music industry. The ease of online distribution has led to issues surrounding copyright infringement and the devaluation of music. Illegal downloading and piracy have significantly impacted the revenue streams of artists and record labels, necessitating new strategies for protecting intellectual property and generating income.

The digital age has also brought about a democratization of the music industry, with increased opportunities for independent artists to gain recognition. The ability to self-release music through online platforms and social media has allowed musicians to build their own fan bases and have a direct impact on their careers. Artists no longer rely solely on record labels for exposure, giving rise to a more diverse and inclusive music landscape.

Moreover, the digital age has opened up global collaborations and cross-cultural influences in music. Artists from different parts of the world can connect and collaborate, bringing together diverse musical traditions and styles. This has led to the emergence of new genres and hybrid musical expressions that blend cultural influences and push the boundaries of creativity.

As technology continues to evolve, the music industry must adapt to the changing landscape. Innovations such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and blockchain technology hold the potential to further revolutionize the creation, distribution, and consumption of music. The digital age has fundamentally transformed the music industry, offering both challenges and opportunities for artists and listeners alike.

Conclusion

Music history is a vast tapestry that spans centuries, continents, and genres. From the early origins of music in ancient civilizations to the modern digital age, the evolution of music has been shaped by cultural, social, and technological influences.

Throughout its rich history, music has served as a means of expression, communication, and storytelling. It has brought people together, transcended language barriers, and expressed the deepest and most complex emotions. From the sacred chants of ancient rituals to the virtuosic performances of symphonies, jazz improvisations, and contemporary pop songs, music has touched the lives of individuals across generations and cultures.

The development of music has seen monumental shifts in style, technique, and technology. From the ornate compositions of the Baroque era to the emotional expressions of the Romantic period, from the groundbreaking innovations of jazz and blues to the technological advancements of the digital age, each era has left its indelible mark on the musical landscape.

As we reflect on the journey through music history, it becomes evident that music has always been a reflection of society. It has mirrored the social, cultural, and political climates of each era, providing a platform for artists to express their thoughts, challenge conventions, and inspire change.

Looking ahead, the future of music is poised for further innovation and exploration. The digital age has opened up endless possibilities for collaboration, expression, and distribution of music. Artists and listeners alike have more autonomy and access than ever before. New technologies and platforms will continue to shape the ways we create, consume, and experience music.

Amidst the ever-changing landscape of music, one thing remains constant: its power to connect, inspire, and transcend boundaries. Music has the ability to touch our hearts, ignite our imaginations, and bring us together in moments of joy, reflection, and unity.

So, let us celebrate the rich history of music and embrace its ongoing evolution. Let us appreciate the contributions of the composers, performers, and innovators who have shaped the musical landscape. And above all, let us continue to cherish and ignite our passion for music, for it is a universal language that truly enriches our lives.